SAFETY SATURDAY: WORK ASSESSMENTS

When... in the course of all these thousands of years has man ever acted in accordance with his own interests?

 - Dostoevsky

… Health is, therefore, seen as a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living …

 - The World Health Organisation

Businesses complete sets of continuous and repeated activities which are undertaken for the purpose of creating outputs, which may generate a profit, and which can be monetary or non-monetary (Australian Tax Office, n.d. ). Continuous and repeated activities undertaken in businesses comprise and are made up of systems of work, which include the arrangement of how work is performed; those physical, mental, and emotional demands which the work imposes on workers; the duration and frequency of tasks workers need to accomplish; and the organisation and design of work (Safe Work Australia, 2015; WorkSafe Victoria, 2022). The systems of work are the means by which inputs are transformed into outputs by the business (Carlton & Perloff, 2015), and by organising the means of that transformation, the business or firm is in control of and consequently responsible for health outcomes arising from the arrangement and operation of those systems (SWA, n.d.-b). This is because currently and for the foreseeable future, human labour and participation remain a necessary component in the transformation of material and informational inputs into organisational outputs. As a consequence of their participation in occupational activities, workers may experience health effects over immediate, short-term, or longer-term bases (Adetunji & Obeng-Gyasi, 2024; Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2026). The obligation of businesses to protect the health and safety of their workers is articulated in detail within the Model Work Health and Safety and Bill (SWA, 2025), where the business, described as the Person Conducting Business Undertakings (PCBU) is obliged to provide and maintain safe working environments, safe systems of work, to manage risks within the working environment, to manage work health and safety risks (Safe Work Australia, 2024). The rationale behind this obligation is that, if the business or firm is the structure within which business activities are organised, those people or entities in charge of the organisation of those activities should arrange business systems in such a way as to minimise the strain on workers.

Human intellectual and physical capacity is translated into work inputs through many different means. Physical exertion is used to stack boxes for transport or retail, but repetitive manual handling causes body stress, and uncontrolled body stress may cause physical discomfort (Christmansson, 1994). Where the required strength or precision is greater than what the human body can provide by itself, powered and unpowered tools may be used – hammers and screwdrivers allow interaction with fixings, drills can be used to prepare material, bench-mounted saws may be used instead of hand-held ones, and trucks can move more material than an individual worker, but now the worker is using tools and energy to exert force in excess of that which they can generate, appreciate, or otherwise control, and that increases the risk of injury (Okunribido et al., 2008; Vyas et al., 2016; Yassi, 1997). Work may not be physical, but require intellectual, emotional, or psychological engagement, or may require the worker to make decisions based on the interpretation of information or their basis of skill. In this case, instead of using powered tools, the worker may use a desktop or information management system. While the worker may not be exposed to physical strain, shock, or noise, the arrangement of data on screens and the handling of different kinds of information may expose workers to postural ergonomic, visual, or psychological strain (Chandra et al., 2009; Chandwani et al., 2019; Manna, 2026). Regardless of the work being done, human participation imposes strain on the human, which if uncontrolled may cause health issues. These issues may result in discomfort or disability for the worker, liability for the business or department, and decrease the overall competitiveness of the firm in which it occurs.

Considering the obligations articulated within the Model Work Health and Safety Bill, those who organise systems of work must protect the health and wellbeing of the humans doing the work. As one particularly savvy work experience student put it, work is where we exchange our time and our health for money, and similar notion is articulated by the World Health Organisation (World Health Organisation, 1986). One means by which a business may protect its workers is by undertaking work assessments. Work assessments are part of the process of identification, assessment, and control of risks (SWA, 2024; n.d.-c). Assessments allow workers and dutyholders to identify things, situations, or activities that may harm a person, the likelihood of that harm arising, any controls that might minimise the risk or damage, and to review the effectiveness of that control. The key element of this process is that it is undertaken systematically and methodologically, ideally within a safety system (Zimolong & Elke, 2006). When done well, work assessments function as a part of the risk management framework which also allows a worker or workforce to weigh in on safety, which is required as part of the consultation process (SWA, n.d.-a; n.d.-d). Work assessments may be undertaken at the workspace, workplace, or worksite levels. This allows risks to be managed at the point at which a worker interacts with a hazard or process, where they and their team or teams may interact, or at the premises level while considering the effect of other and environmental causes.

Workspace assessment

A worker’s workspace is the physical environment in which they complete their duties of work (Chaffin, 1987). There are as many workspaces as there are kinds of work to be done – from a desk-worker’s computer setup, to a painter’s easel, a carpenter’s bench, or wherever it is that lawyers do whatever it is that lawyers do. Because of this, the better the workspace fits the capacities of the worker, such as their physical dimensions, their sight, and their strength, the less likely that worker is to experience discomfort or performance deficit (Grandjean & Kroemer, 1997). Hazards arise from the interaction between humans and their environment over time, and so good workspace assessment will evaluate how peoples’ use of their environments change over the time of their interactions, which may be over a shift, a week, or a career. For example, it is known that a worker’s sitting posture may affect their neck and shoulder discomfort (Grandjean & Hünting, 1977). However, workers’ postures change throughout the day as their vision becomes strained, as they become exhausted, and as they become bored (Carayon et al., 1999). Consequently, the concentration of strain in the worker’s body may change as well. Workers’ environments also change throughout the day – the temperature, illumination, and humidity of working environments may change according to day-night cycles (Observable with your eyes). The movement of light across working areas may create concentrations of glare and reflection (Hultgren & Knave, 1974), and given that glare may affect workers’ experience of neck and headache discomfort (Mork et al., 2020), comprehensive assessment may be necessary. Awkwardly designed or positioned workspaces may cause workers to sit, reach, or hold awkward postures for extended periods of time, which may again increase their discomfort. This is of particular relevance given the increased proportion of workers in desk roles who may elect to work from home. In worker’s homes, the non-standardised nature of the working environment may introduce more diverse risks (Ahmed et al., 2022), and may make risk control more difficult. A workspace may be more risky if the worker must work with hazardous material or energised devices. A worker’s performance typically degrades throughout the day, and this decrement may be more pronounced with longer, staggered or irregular, overnight, or otherwise non-standard shifts (Krueger, 1989). Thus, workspace assessment must consider the worker, the work being done, the time over which that work is being done, the environment in which that work is being done, and how the interaction of these and other factors transforms the hazard profile and risk concentration to best inform the selection of controls.

Workplace Assessment

Workspaces are where workers complete their work, and workplaces are physical locations in which workspaces are organised (Steiner, 2006). Historically, the workplace was the factory, the office, or the site, where work was centralised alongside the machines and material necessary to get the work done. Examples of these are steel-making and glass-rolling facilities, corporate office towers, and industrial parks. Contemporarily, while factories and plant are still needed to centralise work, the knowledge worker can do their job remotely and work from the office, from home, from third spaces, or from a mixture of places (Hopkins & Bardoel, 2023). Workplace assessment may be more difficult than workspace assessment – where an individual worker’s risk profile may be controlled effectively by inferring risks following assessment of the worker, workplace risk assessment is a matter of interactions. Consider the factory floor – factories and warehouses typically have few internal divisions between individual workplaces, and workplaces are typically arranged around plant or process machinery which themselves are arranged in process streams (Stephens & Meyers, 2013). Because of this, uncontrolled exposures such as noise, vibration, or dust can affect multiple workers from one source (Safe Work Australia, 2020b). In small-scale industrial operations such as automotive mechanics, furniture-making, or painting, uncontrolled dispersal of fumes and volatile vapours may cause discomfort for workers who are working in the same space but not the same place as the source (International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1989; Kauppinen et al., 2006; Loupa, 2013). Workplaces may also be enclosed or open. Enclosed workplaces such as private offices, industrial buildings with four continuous walls, flooring, and ceilings, or commercial kitchens may be better equipped to minimise inadvertent ingress or egress of exposures. Open workplaces such as a mechanic’s garage with open shutters, a horticultural nursery, or farm are open to the elements and so may be more difficult to control. Controls for risks need to consider how those risks are transformed through the environment from the meso-scale of the workplace to the micro-scale of the worker. For example, a dental surgery may supply its chairs with air and water from a compressor in a separate room, but the compressor may expose workers elsewhere to noise and vibration. If the point of workspace assessment is to optimise the transformation of human effort as an input into labour as an output, then the point of workspace assessment is to aggregate and coordinate the optimisation of this transformation.

Worksite Assessment

Not all work is done in consistent areas. For technical, construction, and primary production tasks, work is typically done at a site. Work at construction sites, mines, and road work cannot be done in controlled environments. Because of this, the workspace, the workplace, and the risk are all more dynamic. It is difficult to control the distribution of dispersed exposures such as dust, smoke and fume, and noise in worksite environments (MacMurdo et al., 2025; Themann & Masterson, 2019). Additionally, worksites may have several different work processes happening at the same time – residential construction is the coordination of trades such as carpentry, plumbing, tiling, and roofing, all of which are working at the same site, on the same project, but which are using different processes to produce completed work outputs. Worksites are also unique because while factories allow work to be centralised around plant, worksites are never in the same places and so need plant to be brought to them. Safe Work Australia considers machinery such as cranes and forklifts, equipment like elevated lifts, containers, implements like automatic planters, and even handheld power tools under the remit of plant safety (SWA, 2018, 2020a). Thus, the responsibility of the business or firm extends to ensuring the health and wellbeing of workers while they are working and while they are using the machines to do that work. To this end, centralised registers may be needed for large or complex projects, and for those registers to be accessible and audited by the risk and responsibility dutyholders. At this level, worksite assessment is less a matter of individual risk control and may potentially be captured within the remit of project management to ensure that an adverse incident does not affect project criticality (Badri et al., 2012). To this end, the larger and more sophisticated a project is, the more sophisticated and comprehensive the assessment and control framework may need to be to address project needs.

Workplace Assessments and Workplace Health

Workers need to be healthy enough to do their jobs. If we accept the World Health Organisation’s definition of health, it is also appropriate to say that workers need to have health in equilibrium or surplus to exchange for monetary gain through occupation. Workplace health management is necessary to ensure a balance between worker health and capacity and the demands of workers’ occupations (WHO, 2002). In Victoria, as in other jurisdictions in Australia, state-funded insurance schemes offer provisions for healthcare practitioners to participate in or even undertake workplace assessments as part of return to work or active injury management. WorkSafe Victoria’s Early Intervention Physiotherapy Framework (EIPF) allows physiotherapists to undertake workplace assessment and reporting where required, offering comprehensive guidance for workers returning to work based on informed health professionals’ appraisal of risk in the context of an active injury (WorkSafe Victoria, 2026). Similarly, the Transport Accident Commission’s (TAC) Physiotherapy schedule of fees has an item line specifically devoted to workplace assessment and reporting (Transport Accident Commission, n.d.). The inclusion of these provisions to invoice state provided insurance for workspace, workplace, and worksite assessment allows skilled health practitioners to contribute to the safe and supported return of injured workers to their places of work. Physiotherapists are skilled health practitioners with experience and capability in ergonomic assessment, biomechanical assessment, and return to work planning (Adam et al., 2011; Chetty, 2010; St-Georges et al., 2022). Employers looking to return workers to their roles, workers looking to get back to their work, and organisations keen to minimise the burden of worker-related indigence and deficit are well-served by using appropriately trained and supported clinicians to support their workers (Gosling et al., 2015). State and general compensation schemes reduce the barriers workers face when returning to work following injury. These barriers can be further lowered by offering no-gap , no-out-of-pocket, or completely compensated services to ensure workers can engage with their rehabilitation without any financial concern (Patel et al., 2007). To use the language of clinical risk, the provision of state-funded compensable services by trained clinicians without the additional burden of cost borne by the patient best addresses occupational blue flags and institutional black flags that may otherwise threaten the quality of the return to work plan (Wynne-Jones et al., 2011).

Work is, by proportion, the activity to which most of human life is devoted. Work is the process through which human time, energy, capacity and skill are put to business processes that allow raw material and informational inputs to be transformed into marketable or saleable outputs, in an exchange of human health and time for which workers are rewarded monetarily. Regardless of whether that work requires qualification or may be done by any member of the public, regardless of whether it is well or poorly paid, regardless of whether it uses powered apparatus or human strength, regardless of the characteristics of the work, the worker is legally, morally, ethically, and socially entitled to protection from harm arising from or sustained in the doing of that work. As part of this, work assessment gives businesses, safety consultants, and workers themselves the opportunity to review and recommend measures to support, protect, and advocate for their own wellbeing, utilising a network of obligations and guidance.

Alex Phillipos

B-Sci, B-HSci, GD-OHS, M-PHTY, M-ESH, M-OHT

Atlas Physio 2 Bruce Street, Preston

Melbourne, VIC, 3072

None of this information constitutes medical, legal, occupational health and safety, best guidance, standard, or other guidance, instruction, or prescription.

No artificial intelligence or assistive intelligence was used in the creation of this work.

References:

Adam, K., Gibson, E., Strong, J., & Lyle, A. (2011). Knowledge, Skills, and Professional Behaviours Needed for Occupational Therapists and Physiotherapists New to Work-Related Practice. Work, 38(309-318).

Adetunji, A., & Obeng-Gyasi, E. (2024). Occupational determinants of health. International public health journal, 16(3), 223–239.

Ahmed, S., Qamar, F., & Soomro, S. A. (2022). Ergonomic Work From Home and Occupational Health Problems Amid COVID-19. Human Systems Management, 41(5), 535-551.

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2026). Social determinants of health. Retrieved 2026-08-09 from https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/australias-health/social-determinants-of-health

Australian Tax Office. (n.d. ). Are you in business? Retrieved 2026-08-09 from https://www.ato.gov.au/businesses-and-organisations/starting-registering-or-closing-a-business/starting-your-own-business/are-you-in-business#ato-Whatisabusiness

Badri, A., Gbodossou, A., & Nadeau, S. (2012). Occupational Health and Safety Risks: Towards the Integration into Project Management. Safety Science, 50(2), 190-198.

Carayon, P., Smith, M. J., & Haims, M. C. (1999). Work Organisation, Job Stress, and Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders. Human Factors, 4(644-663).

Carlton, D. W., & Perloff, J. M. (2015). Modern industrial organization, global edition (4 ed.). Higher education.

Chaffin, D. B. (1987). Occupational Biomechanics - A Basis for Workplace Design to Prevent Musculoskeletal Injuries. Ergonomics, 30(2), 321-329.

Chandra, A., Chandna, P., Deswal, S., & Kumar, R. (2009). Ergonomics in the Office Environment: A Review. Proceedings of the International Conference of Energy and Environment - Chandrigarh, India, 7.

Chandwani, A., Chauhan, M. K., & Bhatnagar, A. (2019). Ergonomics Assessment of Office Desk Workers Working in Corporate Offices. International Journal of Health Science Research, 9(8), 367-375.

Chetty, L. (2010). Physiotherapy and Ergonomics for a Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorder. International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation, 17(2), 84-91.

Christmansson, M. (1994). Repetitive and Manual Jobs - Content and Effects in Terms of Physical Stress and Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders. International Journal of Human Factors in Manufacturing, 4(3), 281-292.

Gosling, C., Keating, J., Isles, R., Morgan, P., & Hopmans, R. (2015). Strategies to Enable Physiotherapists to Promote Timely Return to Work Following Injury. C. The Institute for Safety, and Recovery Research. https://researchmgt.monash.edu/ws/portalfiles/portal/287993966/286387691_oa.pdf

Grandjean, E., & Hünting, W. (1977). Ergonomics of Posture - Review of Various Problems of Standing and Sitting Posture. Applied Ergonomics, 8(3), 135-140.

Grandjean, E., & Kroemer, K. H. (1997). Fitting the Task To the Human: A Textbook of Occupational Ergonomics. CRC Press.

Hopkins, J., & Bardoel, A. (2023). The Future is Hybrid: How Organisations are Designing and Supporting Sustainable Hybrid Work Models in Post-Pandemic Australia. Sustainability, 15(4), 3086.

Hultgren, G. V., & Knave, B. (1974). Discomfort Glare and Disturbances from Light Reflections in an Applied Office Landscape with CRT Display Terminals. Applied Ergonomics, 5(1), 2-8.

International Agency for Research on Cancer. (1989). Occupational Exposures in Paint Manufacture and Painting. IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Some Organic Solvents, Resin Monomers and Related Compounds, Pigments and Occupational Exposures in Paint Manufacture and Painting. Retrieved 2026-08-09 from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK524881/

Kauppinen, T., Vincent, R., Liukkonen, T., Gzebyk, M., Kauppinen, A., Welling, I., Arezes, P., Black, N., Bochmann, F., Campelo, F., & Costa, M. (2006). Occupational Exposure to Inhalable Wood Dust in the Member States of the European Union. The Annals of Occupational Hygiene, 50(6), 549-561.

Krueger, G. P. (1989). Sustained Work, Fatigue, Sleep Loss, and Performance: A Review of the Issues. Work & Stress, 3(2), 129-141.

Loupa, G. (2013). Case Study: Health Hazards of Automotive Repair Mechanics: Thermal and Lighting Comfort, Particulate Matter and Noise. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 10(10), 135-146.

MacMurdo, M. G., Maier, L. A., Balmes, J. R., Berg, E., Brigham, E., Cummings, K. J., Dahlberg, V., Evoy, R., Ewart, G., Guild, A., , & Henneberger, P. K. (2025). Occupational Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution: At-Risk Worker Groups, Regulatory and Research Needs: An Official American Thoracic Society Workshop Report. Annals of the American Thoracic Society, 22(11), 1619-1632.

Manna, P. (2026). From the Ocular Surface to Neurophysiology: An Integrative Review of Digital Eye Strain. Clinical Optometry, 586750.

Mork, R., Falkenberg, H. K., Fostervold, K. I., & Thorud, H. M. S. (2020). Discomfort Glare and Psychological Stress During Computer Work: Subjective Responses and Associations Between Neck Pain and Trapezius Muscle Blood Flow. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 93(1), 29-42.

Okunribido, O. O., Magnusson, M., & Pope, M. H. (2008). The Role of Whole-Body Vibration, Posture, and Manual materials Handling as Risk Factors for Low Back Pain in Occupational Drivers. Ergonomics, 51(3), 308-329.

Patel, S., Greasley, K., & Watson, P. J. (2007). Barriers to Rehabilitation and Return to Work for Unemployed Chronic Pain Patients: A Qualitative Study. European Journal of Pain, 11(8), 831-840.

Safe Work Australia. (2015). Principles of Good Work Design - A work health and safety handbook. Retrieved 2026-08-09 from https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/system/files/documents/1702/good-work-design-handbook.pdf

Safe Work Australia. (2018). Model Code of Practice: Managing Risks of Plant in the Workplace. Retrieved 2026-08-09 from https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/doc/model-code-practice-managing-risks-plant-workplace

Safe Work Australia. (2020a). Guide for Safe Design of Plant. Retrieved 2026-08-09 from https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/system/files/documents/1703/guide-safe-design-plant.pdf

Safe Work Australia. (2020b). Model Code of Practice: Managing Noise and Preventing Hearing Loss at Work. Retrieved 2026-08-09 from https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/default/files/2024-11/model_code_of_practice-

managing_noise_and_preventing_hearing_loss_at_work-nov24.pdf

Safe Work Australia. (2024). Model Code of Practice: How to Manage Work Health and Safety Risks. Retrieved 2026-08-09 from https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/default/files/2024-11/model_code_of_practice-how_to_manage_work_health_and_safety_risks-nov24.pdf

Safe Work Australia. (2025). Model Work Health and Safety Bill. Retrieved 2026-08-09 from https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/default/files/2025-12/model-whs-bill-5_december_2025.pdf

Safe Work Australia. (n.d.-a). Consulting, Cooperating, and Coordinating Activities with Other Duty Holders. Retrieved 2026-08-09 from https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/safety-topic/managing-health-and-safety/consultation/consulting-cooperating-and-coordinating-activities-other-duty-holders

Safe Work Australia. (n.d.-b). Duties of a PCBU. Retrieved 2026-08-09 from https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/law-and-regulation/duties-under-whs-laws/duties-pcbu

Safe Work Australia. (n.d.-c). Managing Risks. Retrieved 2026-08-09 from https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/safety-topic/managing-health-and-safety/identify-assess-and-control-hazards/managing-risks

Safe Work Australia. (n.d.-d). Safe Design. Retrieved 2026-08-09 from https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/safety-topic/managing-health-and-safety/safe-design

St-Georges, M., Hutting, N., & Hudon, A. (2022). Competencies for Physiotherapists Working to Facilitate Rehabilitation, Work Participation, and Return to Work for Workers with Musculoskeletal Disorders: A Scoping Review. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 32(4), 637-651.

Steiner, J. (2006). The Art of Space Management: Planning Flexible Workspaces for People. Journal of Facilities Management, 4(1), 6-22.

Stephens, M. P., & Meyers, F. E. (2013). Manufacturing Facilities Design and Material Handling. Purdue University Press.

Themann, C. L., & Masterson, E. A. (2019). Occupational Noise Exposure: A Review of its Effects, Epidemiology, and Impact with Recommendations for Reducing its Burden. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 146(5), 3879-3905.

Transport Accident Commission. (n.d.). Physiotherapy fees. Retrieved 2026-08-10 from https://www.tac.vic.gov.au/providers/invoicing-and-fees/fee-schedule/physiotherapy-services?drop=1

Vyas, H., Nag, A., & Nag, P. (2016). Ergonomics Evaluation of User-Hand Tool Interaction. Work, 53(745-753).

WorkSafe Victoria. (2022). Occupational health and safety – your legal duties. An overview of employer and employee responsibilities under the Occupational Health and Safety Act 2004. Retrieved 2026-08-09 from https://www.worksafe.vic.gov.au/occupational-health-and-safety-your-legal-duties

WorkSafe Victoria. (2026). Early intervention physiotherapy framework (EIPF) fee schedule. Retrieved 2026-09-10 from https://www.worksafe.vic.gov.au/early-intervention-physiotherapy-framework-eipf-fee-schedule

World Health Organisation. (1986). The 1st International Conference on Health Promotion, Ottawa, 1986. Retrieved 2026-08-09 from https://www.who.int/teams/health-promotion/enhanced-wellbeing/first-global-conference

World Health Organisation. (2002). Good Practice in Occupational Health Services: A Contribution to Workplace Health. Retrieved 2026-09-10 from https://iris.who.int/bitstreams/38049430-3f87-437a-ad62-4f848ec63947/download

Wynne-Jones, G., Buck, R., Porteous, C., Cooper, L., Button, L. A., Main, C. J., & Phillips, C. J. (2011). What Happens to Work if You're Unwell? Beliefs and Attitudes of Managers and Employees with Musculoskeletal Pain in a Public Sector Setting. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 21(1), 31-42.

Yassi, A. (1997). Repetitive Strain Injuries. The Lancet, 349(9056), 943-947.

Zimolong, B., & Elke, G. (2006). Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics. Wiley.